Manioc

The archaeologist Payson Sheets, in his excavations at the archaeological site Joya de Ceren in El Salvador, found that in addition to growing corn the residents were growing manioc (also known as yuca and cassava).  In fact he found that corn alone was not sufficient to support the population that existed there, but that manioc was capable and would have provided enough nutrients to sustain the population.  He feels that in many cases the estimated population of ancient sites has been under estimated based on a diet of corn alone, but that if manioc were included that the populations would have been much greater. 

In comparisons manioc has twice as many calories and twice as much carbohydrate as corn so a grower can basically grow twice as much in the same space with manioc than with corn.  However corn seems to have more of the vitamins and minerals than manioc so there would be trade offs in the use of each one.

Manioc is easier to grow than corn.  It is draught resistant and can be grown in poor soil.  It is more resistant to pests and disease.  It is propagated by cutting the old stems into 6"-10" lengths which are then planted by inserting into the earth 4-5" and waiting for it to grow.  The new growth sprouts out of the nodes that are above earth.   Manioc takes longer to form the tubers than corn does to form ears, but many chose to grow manioc instead of strictly corn.  Manioc can be grated up and dried and then ground or pounded into flour.

These are some videos that illustrate the growing of manioc:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cG0jpI8UvRU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TkvJ7P9U1Ws

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jyKPhaZw_0w

Where was Ur?

 

In recent years the question has arisen "where was the Ur of the Chaldees mentioned in the Book of Abraham located?"  Historically it was always thought to be the site of Ur in southern Iraq, the site excavated by Leonard Woolley in about 1922.  But recently, some have claimed to have located another biblical Ur in Turkey, near the site of Harran (Haran).  This article will argue for the original southern Iraq site at the mouth of the Tigris and Euphates rivers, and adjacent to the Persian Gulf.

From Hoskisson

In the Book of Abraham (in the Pearl of Great Price) we read Abraham's account about the land and city of Ur; "In the land of the Chaldeans, at the residence of my fathers, I, Abraham, saw that it was needful for me to obtain another place of residence (Abr. 1:1).  What was the reason he needed to leave?  He was to have been sacrificed, on the order of Nimrod the king,  by an Egyptian priest on an altar that "was in the land of Ur, of Chaldea (1:20)".  The Lord was displeased with this threat against Abraham and caused a severe famine to come upon the land.  It was so severe that Abraham's brother Haran died, and Abraham was commanded to take his family, leave Ur and go to Canaan.  On his way he stopped in south eastern Turkey for some time and named this spot Haran (apparently after his dead brother);  then later took up his journey, at the Lord's command, southwestward to Canaan (2:1-5).  This was not the shortest route from Ur to Canaan, which would have been due west from the southern Ur, but seemed to follow the trade routes  NNW along the rivers, and then southward along the Mediterranean coast.

The proposed northern Ur is located in south east Turkey at the head of the Euphrates 

Gobekli Tepe (Courtesy Wikipedia)

River.  It is near a town called Sanliurfa (the latter part of the name being Urfa, which it is thought refers to the ancient name Ur).  There is an ancient ruin named Göbekli Tepe which is an ancient sanctuary located about 15 km northeast of the city of Sanliurfa.  It does not show evidence of a zuggurat as was characteristic of Sumerian cities, and is actually dated much earlier than Abraham's time (10,000 BC).  Although  I do not think that this date is accurate, it seems to place it outside Abraham's time frame.  Although there are traditions about Abraham at Urfa, I don't feel that they are as convincing as the southern ones.  As a result I do not think Urfa is a valid candidate for the Pearl of Great Price city of Ur. 

I will now focus on six points which seem to validate a southern location for the city of Ur.

1.  Chaldea and the land of the Chaldeans

Courtesy Wikipedia

In the scriptures Abraham is associated with Chaldea and the Chaldeans.  This is a very strong link.  Chaldea was located at the head of the Persian Gulf, at the mouths of the Tigris and Euphates rivers.  If Ur was located in Chaldea, it could not have been at the suggested site in southeastern Turkey.  Some of the scriptural references from the Book of Abraham will be of use here.

Abr 1:1  In the land of the Chaldeans, at the residence of my fathers, I, Abraham, saw that it was needful for me to obtain another place of residence.  (Here we have Abraham located at his father's residence in the land of the Chaldeans.)

Abr 1:8  it was the custom of the priest of Pharaoh, the king of Egypt, to offer up upon the altar which was built in the land of Chaldea;  (The altar where Abraham was to have been sacrificed was in Chaldea, therefore the adjacent Ur would have been in Chaldea as well.  See Abraham and Nimrod.)

Abr 1:20  Behold, Potiphar’s Hill [where Abraham was scheduled to be killed] was in the land of Ur, of Chaldea. And the Lord broke down the altar of Elkenah, and of the gods of the land, and utterly destroyed them, and smote the priest that he died; and there was great mourning in Chaldea, and also in the court of Pharaoh.  (Potiphar's Hill, or the location of the Egyptian altar, was in Chaldea, and the hill was also located there.)  

Abr 1:30  Accordingly a famine prevailed throughout all the land of Chaldea, and my father was sorely tormented because of the famine.  (The famine severely affected the residents of Chaldea, and the land of Ur, forcing many to flee.  Abraham and his family fled north to the upper Euphrates.  This would have been a long distance.  Fleeing 20 miles or so [the distance from Harran to Urfa, the suggested northern Ur, would not have changed the effects of the famine much.)

Abr 2:1  Now the Lord God caused the famine to wax sore in the land of Ur, insomuch that Haran, my brother, died; but Terah, my father, yet lived in the land of Ur, of the Chaldees.  (It should be noted here that Terah, Abraham's father, was the leader of Nimrod's army.  He temporarily repents of his idolatry and leaves his position of power to go with Abraham north into rural Turkey.  When they settle in the area, they name the place Haran.  It had apparently not been named before.)

Abr 2:4  I (Abraham speaking) left the land of Ur, of the Chaldees, to go into the land of Canaan (by way of Haran).  (This identifies the three separate locations.) 

Abr 2:15  Sarai, whom I took to wife when I was in Ur, in Chaldea, (Referring to the past, he took Sarai as his wife when he previously resided in Ur.  He is now enroute from Haran to Canaan.)

Also in the book of Acts we read the following description given by Stephen 

7:2 The God of glory appeared unto our father Abraham, when he was in Mesopotamia, before he dwelt in Charran,

3 And said unto him, Get thee out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and come into the land which I shall shew thee.

4 Then came he out of the land of the Chaldæans, and dwelt in Charran: and from thence, when his father was dead, he removed him into this land, wherein ye now dwell.

Ur was in Mesopotamia.  Mesopotamia is differentiated from Harran.  Get out of thy country (Mesopotamia and Ur) and go to Harran.  He left the land of the Chaldaeans and went to Harran.

2.  Nimrod (also known as Amraphel or Gilgamesh)

According to the account in the Book of Jasher, Abraham was closely involved with the Sumerian king Nimrod, and this involvement links Ur to the southern location .  It was Nimrod who almost killed him as a baby (Jasher Ch. 8).  It was Nimrod who condemned him to die at the hand of the Egyptian priest.  It was Nimrod who employed his father as his general.  And it was Nimrod who enriched him as he left Ur to travel north.  

Aerial view Ur 1927 (Wikipedia)

Nimrod's base was in Sumer, at the mouth of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.   He founded the cities of Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh.   "And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar (Gen. 10:10)".  Although it isn't mentioned, he undoubtedly founded Ur as well.  He was related, thru his grandfather Cush, to the early Egyptian rulers, which probably explains the presence of the Egyptian priest, and the acceptance of the Egyptian religious practices.  

3.  The Ziggurats

Sumerian religious practices focused on the artificial mountain, or ziggurat.  Major Sumerian cities are all built around, or close to, a prominent pyramid.  The city of Ur undoubtedly had its own ziggurat.  The tower of Babel was likely a ziggurat, and was probably located near the southern Ur.  In other words, the true Ur should evidence archaeological ruins including a ziggurat, royal burials, and ancient libraries (cuniform 

Reconstructed Ziggurat of Ur (Wikipedia)

tablets).

The only archaeological evidence that I can find for Urfa is the ancient city of Gobekli Tepe.  This site is dated at 10,000 BC (much too early), is built of rock and in a rocky environment (Sumer did not have rock and had to rely on clay), did not have a close relationship with Egypt, and is about 15 miles away from Urfa.  There are legends about Abraham in this region, but they are not as strong as the southern ones, and probably relate to Abraham's sojourn in the area.

4.  Leonard Woolley's excavations at Ur

Sir Leonard Woolley began his excavations at the Ur site in 1922.  His findings included what one would expect from a royal tomb complex from that time period.  They included many precious artifacts, exceptional art work, the untouched tomb of the queen (but the kings tomb was empty), the remains of many servants (killed to accompany the dead), and ancient paintings.  This site is near the remains of the Ur ziggurat.

This is only one of a multitude of ancient sites that have been excavated in what was then Sumer.  In

Excavations at Ur (Wikipedia)

addition, thousands of clay tablets have been found containing cuniform script which detail much of the culture of the Sumerian people.  Nothing similar has been found at the archaeological sites near Urfa.

5.  Ur was a center of cultural and commerce.  

Ur was situated at a strategic location near the mouths of the two river and with access to the sea routes to various ancient nations.  As Sumer had few natural resources (other than plentiful harvests of grain) they relied on trade with their neighbors for other necessary goods to maintain and build their civilization.  This would not have been available to the people of the northern Ur (Urfa).  The Sumerians had a history of trade with other countries and a history of navigation to the coasts of distant India and Africa.

Other references
Book of Jasher
Where was Ur of the Chaldees?  An opposing view.
Ur.  From the Ancient History Encyclopedia.
Chaldea.  From Wikipedia.
The Tigris Expedition: In Search of Our Beginnings
Lament for Ur