Lament for Ur

Tablet containing
 Lamentatin for Ur
Wikipedia Commons

I have recently been considering several interesting comparisons of historical events in ancient Chaldea. It occurred to me that the events described in the first part of the book of Abraham, as well as the destruction of the Tower of Babel, the scattering following the confusion of tongues, and the events deplored in the Lament for the Destruction of Ur, might all be talking about the same historical event.

For those of you not familiar with the Lament for Ur, let me explain. A number of cuneiform clay tablets have been found dating to the Sumerian period in Mesopotamian history that contain the same, or similar, doleful descriptions of the destruction of the city-state of Ur. The Lament tells how the gods have turned against Ur and decreed its destruction. It is devastated by wind, sun and storm until the city lies in ruins, its people dead in the streets, and its temple destroyed.

Although it is difficult to date this event in Sumerian history, most scholars have assigned it to a late time period when the Sumerians were conquered by their enemies the Elamites, an event that ended the Sumerian civilization. However I would suggest that these laments were referring to a much earlier event that was subsequently remembered in retrospect for generations. The laments don't seem to mention armed conflict or invasion. They don't talk about battles or conquering armies. They emphasize the wrath of natural forces decreed by vengeful gods.

What might this lamentable event have been? I suggest that it is referring to the same event that is described in the first two chapters of the book of Abraham.  It is describing the events surrounding the destruction of the Tower of Babel and the Confusion of Tongues. This was a time of great destruction, a time of famine and suffering, an event that forced mass migrations of the inhabitants out of Mesopotamia. The separate accounts do not give the complete picture, but combining them, we get a clearer view of these horrific events.

Let us start with the account from the Book of Abraham. Abraham has been sentenced to death because of charges brought against him by his father (see the Book of Jasher Ch. 11). He is bound and placed upon the Egyptian altar that is near Potiphar's Hill in Ur, and the priest is in the process of killing him. The Lord intervenes, kills the priest, and destroys the altar and the idols. We read:

"Behold, Potiphar’s Hill was in the land of Ur of Chaldea. And the Lord broke down the altar of Elkenah, and of the gods of the land, and utterly destroyed them, and smote the priest that he died; and there was great mourning in Chaldea, and also in the court of Pharaoh ...

Facsimile 1 Bk. of Abraham

"Now, after the priest of Elkenah was smitten that he died, there came a fulfilment of those things which were said unto me concerning the land of Chaldea, that there should be a famine in the land.
"Accordingly a famine prevailed throughout all the land of Chaldea, and my father was sorely tormented because of the famine, and he repented of the evil which he had determined against me, to take away my life (Abr. 1:20, 29-30).
"Now the Lord God caused the famine to wax sore in the land of Ur, insomuch that Haran, my brother, died; but Terah, my father, yet lived in the land of Ur, of the Chaldees (Abr. 2:1)."

Here we read that God destroyed the altar and the pagan idols. Could this altar have been the actual Tower of Babel? Why would priests come to Ur from Egypt to practice their rites, if not on an altar atop the famed tower. Following the destruction of the priest, idols and altar, “there was great mourning in Chaldea, and also in the court of Pharaoh.” Such mourning surely resulted from more than the death of one man and the loss of several images and a simple bedstead. Could it not have been a result of the destruction of their years of effort in constructing the tower and the culture and rites that surrounded it?

Then there follows a severe famine in Ur. The above scripture glosses over the extent of the famine, but the Sumerian laments give a more detailed picture.

For the gods have abandoned us

like migrating birds they have gone

Ur is destroyed, bitter is its lament

The country's blood now fills its holes like hot bronze in a mould

Bodies dissolve like fat in the sun. Our temple is destroyed

Smoke lies on our city like a shroud.

blood flows as the river does

the lamenting of men and women

sadness abounds

Ur is no more

Farther on in the lament we read:

Behold,) they [the gods] gave instruction that the city be destroyed,

(behold,) they gave instruction that Ur be destroyed,

and as its destiny decreed that its inhabitants be killed.

Enlil called the storm. The people mourn.

Winds of abundance he took from the land. The people mourn.

Bood[?] winds he took away from Sumer. the people mourn.

Deputed evil winds. The people mourn.

Entrusted them to Kingaluda, tender of storms.

He called the storm that annihilates the land. The people mourn.

He called disastrous winds. The people mourn.

Enlil -- choosing Gibil as his helper --

called the (great) hurricane of heaven. The people mourn.

The (blinding) hurricane howling across the skies -- the people mourn --

the tempest unsubduable like breaks through levees,

beats down upon, devours the city's ships,

(all these) he gathered at the base of heaven. The people mourn.

(Great) fires he lit that heralded the storm. The people mourn.

And lit on either flank of furious winds the searing heat of the desert.

Like flaming heat of noon this fire scorched.

The storm ordered by Enlil in hate, the storm which wears away the country,

covered Ur like a cloth, veiled it like a linen sheet.

On that day did the storm leave the city; that city was a ruin.

O father Nanna, that town was left a ruin. The people mourn.

On that day did the storm leave the country. The people mourn.

Its people('s corpses), not potsherds,

littered the approaches.

The walls were gaping;

the high gates, the roads,

were piled with dead.

In the wide streets, where feasting crowds (once) gathered, jumbled they lay.

In all the streets and roadways bodies lay.

In open fields that used to fill with dancers,

the people lay in heaps.

(Enlil, Gibil, Nanna, Kingaluda are Sumerian gods.  This is only a small portion of the total lament. Another online version:
http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.2.2.2&charenc=j#)

Hugh Nibley, in his book Lehi in the Desert and the World of the Jaredites (Ch. 2, Departure), gives several interesting references relating to this event:

[The Sibyl tells us] "when all men were of one tongue, some of them built a high tower so as to mount up to heaven, but God destroyed the tower by mighty winds."
Theophilus of Antioch gave a fuller version of the story, quoting the Sibyl in verse: "After the cataclysm [flood] cities and kings had a new beginning, in this manner. The first city of all was Babylon, . . . and one by the name of Nimrod became its king. . . . Since at that time men tended to become scattered, they took counsel of themselves and not of the Lord, to build a city and a tower the top of which would reach to heaven, so that their own name might be glorified. . . . Thus speaks the Sybil ... They all once spoke the same language and wanted to mount up to the starry heavens. But forthwith the Immortal One laid great stress upon the blasts, so that the wind overthrew the mighty tower, and drove mortals to strive with one another. And when the tower had fallen, the languages of men were divided up into many dialects, so that the earth became filled with different kingdoms of men."
The Book of Jubilees ... tells how "the Lord sent a mighty wind against the tower and overthrew it upon the earth, and behold it was between Asshur and Babylon in the land of Shinar, and they called its name 'Overthrow.' "The zealous and learned Persian antiquary Tha'labi ... records the report that the people were scattered from the tower by an awful drought, accompanied by winds of such velocity as actually to blow down the tower.

From these accounts we get a much different view of the destruction of the tower and the scattering of the people. If my interpretation is correct, then Abraham's attempted sacrifice on the altar at Ur was the precipitating event which brought on this great cataclysm.

Sumerian Origins - The Arts

Gudea

The Sumerians appear to have excelled in many of the arts. I have already mentioned their skill in architectural design elsewhere. They were very skilled in sculpture, in particular the votive figurines, and the statues of kings and gods, all of which are very life like and well proportioned. Similar statues and facial carvings are present in the Americas, especially those Olmec jade faces probably representing elite personages. Good examples are also found in Nicaragua, Mexico (the giant heads in Veracruz), and Guatemala. 

Kramer observes: “In the field of art, the Sumerians were particularly noted for their skill in sculpture … Sumerian sculptors were quite skillful in carving figures on steles and plaques and even on vases and bowls. It is from this sculpture that we learn a good deal about Sumerian appearance and dress (1318).” The practice of writing and carving steles is also present in the Americas. 

Sumerian Harp

Music was important to the Sumerian people. Beautifully designed and constructed harps and lyres have been discovered in the royal tombs of Ur. They also used drums, tambourines, and metal and reed pipes. 

Kramer: “Poetry and song flourished in the Sumerian schools. Most of the recovered works are hymns to gods and kings for use in the temple and palace; but there is every reason to believe that music, song, and dance were a major source of entertainment in the home and market place (1320).” One special practice of the Sumerians was to convert their epics and legends into hymns which were then sung in their gatherings (2623). 

This must have also been a practice among the Jaredites for when they were suffering adversity while crossing the sea “they did sing praises unto the Lord; yea, the brother of Jared did sing praises unto the Lord, and he did thank and praise the Lord all the day long; and when the night came, they did not cease to praise the Lord (Ether 6:9).” 

The Sumerians were especially accomplished in poetry, and many poetic works have been found on the cuneiform tablets. Kramer tells us: “The large majority of the Sumerian literary works are written in poetic form. The use of meter and rhyme was entirely unknown, but practically all other poetic devices and techniques were utilized with no little skill, imagination, and effect: repetition and parallelism, metaphor and simile, chorus and refrain (2220). Hymnography to turn from epic to hymn was a carefully cultivated, highly sophisticated art in Sumer (2623). Hymn writing had become so sophisticated a literary art in Sumer that it was subdivided into various categories by the ancient poets themselves (2648).” These hymns were categorized by subject, type of accompanying instrument, by applicable ceremonies, etc. 

Another Sumerian specialty was the Lamentation. A number of these are known and are of two types: those bewailing the destruction of cities, and those lamenting the death of one of the gods. Particularly numerous are the Lamentations regarding the destruction of Ur. In some ways these laments are similar to the Lamentation books of the Bible. 

Cylinder seal and impression.
Wikipedia Commons

One of the most original contributions of the Sumerians to the arts was the cylinder seal, a small cylinder of stone, wood, metal or ceramic. Its design or message became clear when it was rolled over moist clay, or in other applications, rolled over some material such as cloth, after wetting the surface with ink or dye (1327). As a result of their universal utility, cylinder seals became very common throughout the Mideast, and many examples of this unique invention have also been discovered in the Americas (although most scholars argue that it was an independent invention there). 

The Sumerians were skilled in metal work, and aside from practical uses, they created many beautiful works of gold, bronze, and silver. They were also adept at working with gem stones and cut, carved, and polished many lovely pieces. Regarding the Jaredites: they were very skilled at working in stone, especially jade. Some gold work has been found at Olmec sites, and although bronze artifacts have not been noted, they were probably skilled in working with copper and copper alloys as archaeological evidence of this has been found. 

In the language arts, the Sumerian was a master of debate. This skill fit in well with his aggressive and competitive personality. Debate was taught and practiced in the schools and a number of common practice debates were transcribed on the clay tablets (3372).


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Sumerian Origins - Archaeology

(We will begin this page by repeating Samuel Kramer's full quote given as the heading of this section.)

Woolley at Ur

Archeology, and particularly the study of man's more ancient past as revealed in the excavations of long buried cities and villages, is by its very nature usually most articulate about his material culture; for archeological finds consist primarily of bricks and walls, tools and weapons, pots and vases, jewels and ornaments, statues and figurines, in short, all the varied products of man's arts and crafts. His social life, his economic and administrative organization, and particularly his world view as revealed in his religious beliefs, ethical ideals, and spiritual yearnings-all these usually have to be inferred and surmised from the artifacts, architecture, and burial customs and then only in the form of vague and loose generalizations. The situation is quite different, however, in the case of Sumer, for here the excavators have unearthed tens of thousands of inscribed clay tablets-literally so-and these add what might be termed a dimension in depth to our understanding of its ancient culture. To be sure, more than 90 per cent of the inscribed material consists of economic and administrative documents, and these, significant as they are in many ways, reveal relatively little of the spiritual life of the ancient Mesopotamians (2147).

The written word is always to be preferred over the tentative interpretation of artifacts and cultural remains. Thus we have a distinct advantage in the case of the Sumerians. The details that they reveal give us a realistic picture of the environment and culture into which the Jaredites had been born, were nurtured in, and in which they probably participated, at least to a limited degree.

The archaeological discoveries began in Mesopotamia during the nineteenth century with minor excavations at the sites of ancient Babylon and Ninevah. The more important sites, as far as the Sumerians were concerned, were southward near the mouth of the Tigrus and Ephrates rivers, with the most important being that of the cities of Ur and Erech.

The political situation in the Middle East has always been somewhat unstable, and this has periodically interrupted the excavations in Iraq. This was especially true during the first and second World Wars, during the Israeli - Arab conflicts, during Saddam Hussein's rule, and during the present war in Iraq. These situations have discouraged and limited those scholars, who would have other wise conducted much more intense and thorough investigations into the ruins of the Sumerian civilization.

Kramer observes: "Following the war years, there have been only two major foreign expeditions excavating in Sumer (436). It [was] the Erech expedition that created a kind of relative dating for all Sumerian finds by sinking a large test-pit through some twenty meters of stratified occupation down to virgin soil and carefully studying and typing the finds of the numerous levels and periods, beginning with the very first settlers and ending with the middle of the third millennium B.C. It laid bare Sumer's earliest monumental buildings known at the time, dating from about 3000 B.C. Among its innumerable smaller finds, there was an alabaster vase, close to a meter in height, that was decorated with cultic scenes highly revealing for early Sumerian rite and ritual; there was also a life-sized marble head of a woman dating from about 2800 B.C., which indicates that early Sumerian sculpture in the round had reached unsuspected creative heights. In one of the early monumental temples more than a thousand pictographic tablets were unearthed, which made it possible to trace the cuneiform system of writing back to its earliest stages (389)." 

"From Biblical Erech we turn to Biblical Ur, or Urim as it was known to the Sumerians, the city which was excavated from 1922 to 1934 with skill, care, and imagination by the late Sir Leonard Woolley. Woolley has described his discoveries at Ur time and again, both for the scholar and for the layman-we need mention here only his latest work, Excavations at Ur (1954). Through his writings its royal tombs, ziggurat, and 'Flood-pit' have almost become household words. Less well-known, but equally significant, contributions have been made by the epigraphists on the expedition ... who have copied, studied, and published a large part of the written documents discovered at Ur-documents which have shed new light on the history, economy, culture not only of Ur, but of Sumer as a whole (402)."

"Except for the ... the sacred area of the city with its main temples and ziggurat, the Sumerian city was hardly an attractive site. To quote Woolley, 'If the residential quarters excavated at Ur give ... a fair sample of the city as a whole, we see something that has grown out of the conditions of the primitive village, not laid out on any system of town-planning. The unpaved streets were narrow and winding, sometimes mere blind alleys leading to houses hidden away in the middle of a great block of haphazard buildings; large houses and small are tumbled together, a few of them flat-roofed tenements one story high, most of them two stories, and a few ... of three. Lanes sheltered by awnings and lined with open booths correspond to the bazaars of the modern Middle Eastern town (1204).'"

During these excavations many Sumerian artifacts have been discovered, the most important of course being the all important cuneiform tablets. Some of these writings date to as early as 3000 BC (3818). Many votive, and other style, statues have been found. These show the manner of dress, appearance, and mode of worship of these people. Other physical artifacts like weapons, tools, jewelry and adornments, money, household utensils, and musical instruments were uncovered. Written documents such as lists of kings, legends and myths, histories, scholarly essays, medical treatise, farmers manuals and legal codes were discovered.

Sumerian Lapis Figurine

In excavating some of the royal tombs valuable caches of gold, silver, jewels and other artifacts were recovered. It was also found that some of the royal dead were attended by sacrificial victims who were killed to accompany the elite personages on their journey to the underworld. 

An example of the jewelry found: "The ancient royal Sumerian tombs of Ur, located near the Euphrates River in lower Iraq, contained more than 6000 beautifully executed lapis lazuli statuettes of birds, deer, and rodents as well as dishes, beads, and cylinder seals)."

Unfortunately, the work of discovering this ancient civilization has not progressed as rapidly as might be desired. As mentioned above, the political climate has often hampered progress. In addition, a large portion of the discovered cuneiform documents still await translation. Kramer points out that: "While most of the documents were excavated more than half a century ago, the piecing together and translation of the compositions inscribed on them made relatively little progress over the ensuing decades [writing in 1963] (2166). As late as 1935 only a relatively small portion of the Sumerian literary documents had been made available in spite of the devoted efforts of numerous cuneiformists (2171). 

Since Kramer's comments, a number of groups have been working on the translations of the tablets. One such group is the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature or ETCSL. This is sponsored by the University of Oxford and they have translated nearly 400 texts dating to late 3000 to early 2000 BC. These translations can be accessed on their website (http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/). The funding for this project ended in 2006 and the project is currently inactive. In spite of the efforts of these commendable projects, the majority of the tablets remain undeciphered.


Jaredite parallels:
Among the early formative and Olmec peoples we find excellent examples of sculpture, jewelry, and other advanced stone working in the Sumerian style. Instead of some of the precious stones used in Sumer, they worked mostly in jade.  The images are very life like and with accurate, three dimensional forms and shapes.  A number of votive style pieces have been found.  

Sumerian pictograph

Few examples of writing have been found, but the older ones, called Epi-Olmec, are similar to the early Sumerian pictographs.
There are examples of mass burials of elite personages where victims have been sacrificed to accompany the ruler in his journey to the world of the dead.  


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Olmec pictograph

Sumerian Origins - Tools

The Sumerians had the knowledge, resources, and skills necessary to manufacture many tools necessary for their labors and the advancement of their society. I imagine that those made of metal would have been especially useful. Their metallurgical skills were advanced for their time, but the knowledge and techniques would have been passed down from before the flood, through Noah, and developed and improved by the innovative Sumarians. 

We read: "[Their] smith worked in gold, silver, tin, lead, copper, bronze. Copper work was highly developed as early as the beginning of the third millennium B.C.; not only was copper casting well known, but also such other techniques as hammering, annealing, filigree, and granulation. The smith, or metallurgist, had at his disposal a special type of bellows which could be worked by hand or foot to raise the temperature of his furnace to a degree of heat that would melt copper. Wood and reeds were used as kindling, and it took two pounds of wood and three "reed bundles"-or six reed bundles if no wood was used-to melt half a pound of copper (1349). A metal called “sugan” (probably antimony) was used as an alloy (1349). The more common products made of copper and bronze were tools such as hoes, axes, chisels, knives, and saws; arms such as lance points and arrowheads, swords, daggers, and harpoons; vessels and containers; nails, pins, rings, and mirrors (1353)." 

So we see that these ancient peoples were not those ignorant, unskilled savages portrayed by many modern histories. Many of these tools were used in their farming and agriculture. They used the copper ax (probably copper alloy) for cutting firewood (3376). They did not rely on stone tools, even though their civilization was flourishing during the last stages of the so called "stone age."

"To make up for the dearth of minerals and stones, they learned to bake the river clay and mud, the supply of which was practically inexhaustible, into sickles, pots, plates, and jars ... Later, the Sumerians invented the brick mold for shaping and baking the ubiquitous river clay and so had no more building-material problem. They devised such useful tools, skills, and techniques as the potter's wheel, the wagon wheel, the plow, the sailboat (74)."  From the leather, manufactured from cattle, sheep, goat and pig skins they made water bags, containers, harnesses, saddles, and of course shoes and sandals (1353).

The jeweler had tools and techniques which he used to cut, form, and polish precious and semi-precious stones. The specific tools are not mentioned, but many beautiful examples have been found that give proof of the methods employed. 

Jaredite parallels: We find similar skill and knowledge among the Jaredites in the Americas. In Ether we read: "And they did make all manner of tools to till the earth, both to plow and to sow, to reap and to hoe, and also to thrash. And they did make all manner of tools with which they did work their beasts. And they did make all manner of weapons of war. And they did work all manner of work of exceedingly curious workmanship (Ether 10:25-27)."

The Jaredites were skilled in the ceramic arts and very beautiful examples have been discovered throughout their domains. These skills seem to have been implemented full blown here in the Americas without a period of development. In addition, they were skilled sculptors having the tools and skills to work in three dimensions. They often worked with hard stone, such as jade, which required great skill. They engaged in monumental building projects that must have required considerable knowledge and the mobilization of tremendous power and resources. 


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Sumerian Origins - Trades and Occupations

Sumerian Carpenter

The Sumerians were very adept at a number of skilled trades.  We read of carpenters, sculptors, jewelers, smiths, leather workers, fullers, textile workers and basket makers.  Of course, there were all the various skills associated with agriculture and animal husbandry.  In addition, we find teachers, scribes, doctors, priests, government officials, etc.  Below I have included a number of quotes from Samuel Kramer regarding the Sumerian trades.  Some of these quotes have been modified to facilitate the flow of the subject.  

"The Sumerian craftsmen were among the most highly skilled in the ancient world (1332). Aside from agricultural workers, some of the trades listed in the Sumerian tablets are: sculptors, jewelers, lapidaries, carpenters, smiths, leather workers, fullers, textile worker and basket makers (1335).

"Eight specific crafts are listed in one of the tablets: that of the chisel worker, or sculptor, the jeweler, the lapidary, the carpenter, the smith, the leather worker, the fuller, and the basket maker (1335).

"Carpenters were always quite numerous in Sumer, for in spite of the dearth of wood, it was utilized on a large scale for making all kinds of furniture as well as boats, wagons, and chariots. To make up to some extent for the difficulty of obtaining wood, old furniture was constantly reused. 1345). The carpenter performed his work with saw, chisel, hammer and drill bit (1347).

"The smith worked in gold, silver, tin, lead, copper, bronze. Copper work was highly developed as early as the beginning of the third millennium B.C.; not only was copper casting well known, but also such other techniques as hammering, annealing, filigree, and granulation. The smith, or metallurgist, had at his disposal a special type of bellows which could be worked by hand or foot to raise the temperature of his furnace to a degree of heat that would melt copper. Wood and reeds were used as kindling, and it took two pounds of wood and three "reed bundles"-or six reed bundles if no wood was used-to melt half a pound of copper (1349).

"A metal called “sugan” (probably antimony) was used as an alloy (1349). The more common products made of copper and bronze were tools such as hoes, axes, chisels, knives, and saws; arms such as lance points and arrowheads, swords, daggers, and harpoons; vessels and containers; nails, pins, rings, and mirrors (1353).

"The leather worker mentioned received a large number of skins each year of bulls, calves, pigs, and especially sheep. From the skin and leather quite a number of objects were manufactured: water skins, bags, harnesses and saddles, tires for chariot wheels, slings, and above all, shoes and sandals (1353).

"The fuller of our tablet seems to have had only a small shop, and little is said about him. The last of the artisans is the basket maker. He received quantities of reeds, a very important commodity in Sumer, and bitumen in order to manufacture baskets and boats (1358)."

In addition to the above trades the textile industry was probably the largest in the land and the most important from the point of view of commerce. Many thousands of tons of wool were worked annually in the city of Ur alone. "Tremendous flocks of goats, sheep, and lambs were raised to obtain wool. The 'shearing' was done by plucking. A spindle was used to spin the wool, and the weaving was done on both horizontal and vertical looms; usually, these two operations were performed by a team of three women (1362).

"The woven cloth was then turned over to the fullers, who soaked it in an alkaline solution in large vats and then trampled it by walking over it with their feet. Although wool was by all odds the most common textile used for cloth, flax was also cultivated, and linen garments seem to have been used especially by certain priests and holy men (1365)."


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Sumerian Origins - People and Society

What were these Sumerians, the source culture for our Jaredites, really like? What kind of people were they? What did they think about? How did they dress? The mysterious cuneiform tablets reveal a great deal about these details - details that flesh out these long dead people to our understanding.

To begin with, the Sumerian citizen was urbane.  His life and culture were centered in the cities. The Sumerians felt that city life was essential for a truly advanced and cultured lifestyle. Rural people were looked down on, especially the nomadic herder. The leading rulers, priests, wealthy land owners, craftsmen and artisians would be found residing in the cities.  Kramer observes: “Sumerian civilization was essentially urban in character, although it rested on an agricultural rather than an industrial base. The land Sumer, in the third millennium B.C., consisted of a dozen or so city-states, each having a large and usually walled city surrounded by suburban villages and hamlets (994).”

Aside from a minority of priests, princes and soldiers, the majority of the population consisted of “farmers and cattle breeders, boatmen and fishermen, merchants and scribes, doctors and architects, masons and carpenters, smiths, jewelers, and potters. There were of course a number of rich and powerful families who owned large estates; but even the poor managed to own farms and gardens, houses, and cattle. The more industrious of the artisans and craftsmen sold their handmade products in the free town market ... Traveling merchants carried on a thriving trade from city to city and with surrounding states by land and sea, and not a few of these merchants were probably private individuals rather than temple or palace representatives (1012).”

Regarding Sumerian social classes: “The population consisted of four categories: nobles, commoners, clients, and slaves. The nobility owned large estates, partly as private individuals, partly in the form of family possessions, which were worked by free clients or dependents as well as slaves. It was the nobility, too, which controlled the temple land ...The commoner owned his own plot of land in the city-state, but as a member of a family rather than as an individual ... The clients consisted of three categories: (1) the well-to-do dependents of the temple, such as the temple administrators and more important craftsmen; (2) the great mass of the temple personnel; and (3) the dependents of the nobility. Most of the clients in the first two categories got small plots of temple land (but only as temporary possessions), although some got rations of food and wool. The clients of the nobles, who worked their estates, were no doubt also paid in accordance with similar arrangements (1049).  The rest of the land-that is, the land not owned by the temple or the nobility-belonged to the ordinary citizens of the community, probably more than half of the population. These free citizens or commoners were organized in large patriarchal families and also in patriarchal clans and town communities (1040)."

Kramer notes the importance of the family in Sumerian culture, and discusses marriage, woman's rights and status, and the standing of children.  "The basic unit of Sumerian society was, as with us, the family, whose members were knit closely together by love, respect, and mutual obligations. Marriage was arranged by the parents, and the betrothal was legally recognized as soon as the groom presented a bridal gift to the father. The betrothal was often consummated with a contract inscribed on a tablet (1063).  [However] marriage in ancient Sumer, and indeed in the ancient Near East in general, was usually a practical arrangement in which the carefully weighed shekel counted more than love's hot desire (3189).  A woman in Sumer had certain important legal rights: she could hold property, engage in business, and qualify as a witness. But her husband could divorce her on relatively light grounds, and if she had no children, he could marry a second wife. Children were under the absolute authority of their parents, who could disinherit them or even sell them into slavery (1066)."

"The average Sumerian house was a small one-story, mud-brick structure consisting of several rooms usually grouped around an open court. The well-to-do Sumerian, on the other hand, probably lived in a two-story house of about a dozen rooms, built of brick and plastered and whitewashed both inside and out  (1211)."

Slavery was an accepted part of Sumerian society. Slaves were mostly owned and exploited by the nobility, wealthy land owners, and the temples.  Much of Sumer's infrastructure was probably constructed in whole, or in part, by slave labor. There were laws governing slaves and slaves had certain rights and privileges.  Kramer states: "Slavery was a recognized institution, and temples, palaces, and rich estates owned slaves and exploited them for their own benefit. Many slaves were prisoners of war, although not necessarily foreigners since they could be fellow Sumerians from a neighboring city defeated in battle. Sumerian slaves were recruited in other ways. Freemen might be reduced to slavery as a punishment for certain offenses. Parents could sell their children as slaves in time of need, or a man might turn over his entire family to creditors in payment of a debt, although for no longer than three years. The slave was the property of his master like any other chattel. He could be branded and flogged and was severely punished if he attempted to escape. On the other hand, it was to his master's advantage that his slave stay strong and healthy, and slaves were therefore usually well treated. They even had certain legal rights: they could engage in business, borrow money, and buy their freedom. If a slave, male or female, married a free person, the children were free. The sale price of a slave varied with the market and the individual involved; an average price for a grown man was twenty shekels, which was at times less than the price for an ass (1063)."

From the abundant Sumerian statues "we learn a good deal about Sumerian appearance and dress. The men either were clean shaven or wore long beards and long hair parted in the middle. The most common form of dress was a kind of flounced skirt, over which long cloaks of felt were sometimes worn. Later the chiton, or long skirt, took the place of the flounced skirt. Covering the skirt was a big fringed shawl, which was carried over the left shoulder, leaving the right arm free. Women often wore dresses which looked like long tufted shawls, covering them from head to foot and leaving only the right shoulder bare. Their hair was usually parted in the middle and braided into a heavy pigtail, which was then wound around the head. They often wore elaborate headdresses consisting of hair ribbons, beads, and pendants (1318)."

What about Sumerian personality and character?  What were their values?   They apparently thought highly of themselves and their accomplishments.  "They considered themselves a kind of 'chosen people,' 'the salt of the earth,' as it were ... The Sumerians thought of themselves as a rather special and hallowed community more intimately related to the gods than mankind in general - a community noteworthy not only for its material wealth and possessions, not only for its powerful kings, but also for it honored spiritual leaders ... a community which all the ... gods ... had selected as their abode  (3641)."  

The Sumerians tended to be a competitive and passionate people, prone to jealousy and easily angered.   Kramer stresses this theme repeatedly:  "Spiritually and psychologically, they laid great stress on ambition and success, pre eminence and prestige, honor and recognition. The Sumerian was deeply conscious of his personal rights and resented any encroachment on them, whether by his king, his superior, or his equal (84).  The Sumerians could never have come as far or achieved as much either materially or spiritually, had it not been for one very special psychological drive which motivated much of their behavior and deeply colored their way of life the ambitious, competitive, aggressive, and seemingly far from ethical drive for pre eminence and prestige, for victory and success 3366.  One of the major motivating forces of Sumerian behavior [was] the drive for superiority and pre eminence with its great stress on competition and success (3180) ... the driving ambition for victory over a rival  (3368) ... the rather one sided emphasis on rivalry and superiority (3758).   [This] aggressive penchant for controversy and the ambitious drive for pre eminence provided no little of the psychological motivation which sparked and sustained the material and cultural advances for which the Sumerians are not unjustly noted: irrigation expansion, technological invention, monumental building, the development of a system of writing and education (3410).   If I am not mistaken, hatred played a rather dominant role in Sumerian behavior ... the Sumerian political, economic, and educational institutions were deeply colored by aggressive competition, by a drive for prestige and pre eminence, which must have inspired a high degree of hatred, scorn, and contempt (3320).  Spiritually and psychologically, they laid great stress on ambition and success, pre eminence and prestige, honor and recognition. The Sumerian was deeply conscious of his personal rights and resented any encroachment on them, whether by his king, his superior, or his equal (84)."

"On the level of ethics and morals, the documents reveal that the Sumerians cherished and valued goodness and truth, law and order, justice and freedom, wisdom and learning, courage and loyalty in short, all of man's most desirable virtues and qualities (3356).  [There are] numerous references to the special protective treatment accorded to widows, orphans, and refugees as well as to the poor and oppressed (3358).   friendship and loyalty were highly prized in Sumer. The friendship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu [mythical Sumerian heroes] was legendary and proverbial throughout the ancient Near East (3284)."  

Sumerian literature is infused with expressions regarding the value of life and the quest for success.  Kramer: "Love of life pervades Sumerian civilization in all its forms and aspects: social, political, economic, and religious (3337).   While all peoples and cultures cherish life and value it dearly, the Sumerians clung to it with particular tenacity because of their theological conviction that after death the emasculated spirit descended to the dark and dreary nether world, where life was at best but a dismal, wretched reflection of life on earth (3341).  Closely allied to the love of life was the value put on material prosperity and well being. The Sumerians prized highly wealth and possessions, rich harvests, well stocked granaries, folds and stalls filled with cattle large and small, successful hunting on the plain and good fishing in the sea (3344).  The pursuit of wealth, no doubt, played an important role in Sumerian life (3356)."  


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Sumerian Origins - Agriculture

Sumer was situated on the delta at the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.  The land was flat and arable, but away from the rivers it was too dry to farm.  Early in their history the Sumerians developed a knowledge of irrigation techniques.  By constructing irrigation canals along the rivers, they were able to open up vast tracts of land for farming.  Agriculture became the mainstay of the Sumerian economy.  Mobilizing their population, and utilizing slave labor, they were able to produce vast amounts of grain and other commodities.  Much of this grain was surplus, and because of these surpluses, they were able to engage in an extensive and profitable export trade with their neighbors. 


The Sumerian farmer lived in the city, or suburban area, and traveled to the outlying farm to work during the day.  The farm lands were owned by the nobility, the temple, wealthy individuals and the commoners.  Kramer notes: "As for the land which did not belong to the temple and which comprised by far the larger part of the territory of the city state, the documents show that much of it was owned by the 'nobility,' that is, the ruling princes and their families and palace administrators as well as the more important priests. These noble families often possessed huge estates measuring hundreds of acres, much of which they obtained by purchase from the less fortunate citizens. The labor on these estates was performed by clients or dependents, whose status resembled that of the dependents of the temple, who were clients of the more prosperous temple officials and administrators. The rest of the land that is, the land not owned by the temple or the nobility belonged to the ordinary citizens of the community, probably more than half of the population (1039)."  

Regarding the specific crops raised by the Sumerians, Kramer observes: "The cereals raised by the Sumerians were barley -  by all odds the most important -  wheat, millet, and emmer (1422).  Vegetables were grown, including chick peas, lentils, vetches, onions, garlic, lettuce, turnips, cress, leeks, mustard, and various kinds of cucumbers (1423)."  The date palm was important to them and they even knew how to artificially fertilize it. They had about 150 words to describe the palms and their various parts.

In addition: "Animal husbandry ...  was fundamental to the Sumerian economy (1428).". Animals provided transportation, food, leather, and clothing. Donkeys were used for transportation.  Oxen were used for plowing, pulling carts and sledges, and carrying heavy loads. Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were utilized for meat. In addition sheep provided valuable wool, and goat hair was used for weaving carpets (1431).  They raise huge flocks of sheep and goats for this purpose (1361).
One branch of Sumerian medicine was devoted to the treatment of animals. "There were ... veterinarians known as "the doctor of the oxen" or "the doctor of the donkeys" (1314)."

Kramer doesn't mention the use of elephants, however, there are two words in the Sumerian vocabulary that can refer to the elephant, and other contemporary cultures did use elephants for cargo, transportation and construction.

Evidence of the vast knowledge of agriculture possessed by the Sumerians is found in their cuneiform tablets devoted to this subject.   They had compiled “farmer's almanacs” to assist in the planting, nurturing, and harvesting of their crops (1375).  One of the tablets contains detailed instructions on normal farming practices (1382). There is also a tablet which outlines precise instructions on preparing and planting a field (1391).

The Sumerians developed a large vocabulary relating to animals, plants, and agriculture in general (2981). For example, they had over a hundred words that referred to different types and varieties of sheep (1431).

A common tool used in gardening was the hoe, which would often be made of copper, or a copper alloy (1424, 3375).  They also used a copper mattock and copper axes.

Sumerian agriculture was supplemented by hunting and fishing.  The nearby sea, and adjacent rivers contained abundant fish.  Birds were plentiful in the nearby marshes.  

The Book of Ether also gives us some additional insight into the agricultural resources available to the people of Sumer.  When the Jaredites left on their epic journey, they were commanded to take flocks and seeds of every kind (suggesting a lot of variety).  They snared birds, and even took containers of fish with them.  We are told that they carried hives of honey bees with them, suggesting that beekeeping was a known practice in Sumer (Ether 1:41; 2:2). 

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Sumerian Origins - The Military

If we consider the early history of the Sumerians with that of Biblical Nimrod, we see that Nimrod and his followers iniciated the first large scale military campaigns following the flood.  In the Book of Jasher we read:  "And Nimrod strengthened himself, and he rose up from amongst his brethren, and he fought the battles of his brethren against all their enemies round about.  And the Lord delivered all the enemies of his brethren in his hands, and God prospered him from time to time in his battles, and he reigned upon earth ...  And when Nimrod was forty years old, at that time there was a war between his brethren and the children of Japheth, so that they were in the power of their enemies.  And Nimrod went forth at that time, and he assembled all the sons of Cush and their families, about four hundred and sixty men, and he hired also from some of his friends and acquaintances about eighty men, and be gave them their hire, and he went with them to battle, and when he was on the road, Nimrod strengthened the hearts of the people that went with him.  And he said to them, Do not fear, neither be alarmed, for all our enemies will be delivered into our hands, and you may do with them as you please.  And all the men that went were about five hundred, and they fought against their enemies, and they destroyed them, and subdued them, and Nimrod placed standing officers over them in their respective places.  And he took some of their children as security, and they were all servants to Nimrod and to his brethren, and Nimrod and all the people that were with him turned homeward ...  And Nimrod dwelt in Shinar, and he reigned securely, and he fought with his enemies and he subdued them, and he prospered in all his battles, and his kingdom became very great.  And all nations and tongues heard of his fame, and they gathered themselves to him, and they bowed down to the earth, and they brought him offerings, and he became their lord and king, and they all dwelt with him in the city at Shinar, and Nimrod reigned in the earth over all the sons of Noah, and they were all under his power and counsel." (1)

Thus Nimrod subdued his neighbors and may have enslaved many of them to assist in his construction projects and build his kingdom and influence.

Nibley feels that Nimrod was originally righteous and favored of God.  We can see this in the above quote where God prospers him in his early battles.  Nibley also suggests that the Lord revealed the bow and arrow to Nimrod, to be used for defense against the threatening wild animals. (2)  But then Nimrod realizes that he can use this weapon to conquer his enemies and subdue his neighbors. In this way he gradually turned to the "dark side" and gained control of neighboring nations.  He became a "hunter of men" and abandoned his righteousness.  

Regarding the Sumerians, Kramer notes that their military overcame their enemies through the use of a strong infantry accompanied by the ancient war chariot.  "The [Sumerian] kings established a regular army with the chariot the ancient 'tank' as the main offensive weapon and a heavily armored infantry which attacked in phalanx formation. Sumer's victories and conquests were due largely to this superiority (1010).” 

Through their military exploits the Sumerians, at one time or another, controlled much of Mesopotamia. However there was always such rivalry between the various city-states that made up the coalition, that they were as often as not warring among themselves, instead of against a common enemy. This weakness eventually resulted in their downfall.

1.  The Book of Jasher 7:31-45.

2.  Hugh Nibley, Brother Brigham Challenges the Saints,1994, p. 18 - 19.


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